The following section outlines key people, places, and terminology mentioned throughout the project. To access the complete bibliography for the thesis, please see this page’s “Bibliography” section.
Project Vocabulary
People
| Achaemenid (Persian Empire) | The Persian dynasty defined by the defeat of King Astyages of Media by Cyrus II (“the Great”) until the death of Darius III (550–330 BC) and the rise of Alexander III of Macedon (“the Great”). |
| Adalbero of Laon (d. 1033 A.D.) | Nephew of Adalberon, Archbishop of Reims and Bishop of Laon by order of King Lothar in 977. |
| Adam | The original human man according to Judeo-Christian and Islamic tradition. |
| Aed Sláne (d. 604 A.D.) | Son of Díarmait mac Cerbaill and Mugain, and joint high-king of Ireland with Colmán Rímid. |
| Aesir | The principal gods of Norse cosmology. |
| Alcuin of York (ca. 732-804 A.D.) | Influential Anglo-Saxon scholar and cleric to Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and the Carolingian Renaissance. |
| Alexander of Macedon (Alexander the Great) (336–323 B.C.) | King of the Kingdom of Macedon and student of Aristotle within the Macedonian court, a leading center of Greek culture. |
| Alvaro de Luna (ca. 1390-1453 A.D.) | Constable of Castile and influential force in state affairs during the rule of John II of Castile. |
| Angevin | Dynasty that stretched from the rule of Henry II (whose father, Geoffrey Plantagenet, was the Count of Anjou) to Richard III’s death in 1485, with territories extending from the Scottish borders to the Pyrenees. |
| Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (ca. 475-526 A.D.) | Roman aristocrat and philosopher of the Early Middle Ages, known for his translation of Greek classics and commentaries on the work of Aristotle and Plato. |
| Antipope | A person who, in opposition to the elected pope, makes a sustained effort to hold the office of Rome’s bishop and head of the Catholic Church. |
| Anton de Zorita (ca. 1500-1600 A.D.) | Castilian translator of Honorat Bovet’s L’Arbre des Batailles for the Marqués de Santillana in 1441. |
| Argippeans | People noted to live north of the Scythians in The Histories written by Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian ca. 484–425 B.C. |
| Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) | Renowned authority of ancient Greek philosophy and is considered the father of Western logic. |
| Asherah | A major northwest Semitic mother-goddess of the Canaanite pantheon associated with sacred trees and pillars, whose influence survived into Judeo-Christian traditions. |
| Ashur | A national god of the ancient Assyrians and Akkadians thought to be named after the city-state of Ashur (Qal’at Sherqat), the religious capital of Assyria. |
| Ashurnasirpal II (ca. 883-859 B.C.) | King during the Neo-Assyrian Dynasty present in Northern Mesopotamia. |
| Athena | The goddess of wisdom and military victory in Greek mythology (also known as the goddess Minerva in Roman mythology), and the patron of the city of Athens. |
| Augustine of Hippo (Saint Augustine or Aurelius Augustinus) (354-430 A.D.) | Theologian, philosopher, and bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa whose written works shaped the practice of biblical exegesis and helped lay the foundation of medieval and modern Christian thought. |
| Avram Noam Chomsky (b. 1928) | A contemporary American linguist and philosopher considered to be the father of modern linguistics. |
| Baldassarre Cossa (Pope John XXIII) (ca. 1370-1419 A.D.) | Pisan antipope from 1410 to 1415 during the Western Schism. |
| Barbatus (St. Barbatus of Benevento) (ca. 610-682 A.D.) | A bishop who assisted in a council held by Pope Agatho in Rome in 680 A.D. and attended the Third Council of Constantinople against the Monothelites in 681 A.D. |
| Bartholomeus Anglicus (Bartholomew the Englishman) (d. 1272 A.D.) | A Franciscan monk of the thirteenth century and scholastic of Paris who wrote the encyclopedia, De proprietatibus rerum (On the nature of things). |
| Bartolomeo Prignano (Pope Urban VI) (ca. 1318-1389 A.D.) | Pope from 1378 to 1389 whose election sparked the Western Schism (1378–1417). |
| Benedict of Nursia (St. Benedict) (ca. 480-547 A.D.) | Considered the father of Western monasticism who wrote a series of instructions for his monastery at Monte Cassino that became known as the Benedictine Rule, the standard for monastic living throughout medieval Europe. |
| Benedictines | A monastic religious order (officially known as the Order of Saint Benedict) of the Catholic Church that follows the Benedictine Rule. |
| Blathmac mac Áedo Sláine (d. 665 A.D.) | One of the younger sons of Áed Sláine who succeeded to the title of High King Blathmac of Ireland in 658. |
| Canaanites | People (made up of different ethnic groups) who lived in the land of Canaan, an area that may have included parts of modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. |
| Capetian Dynasty (House of France) | The ruling house of France from 987 to 1328 A.D. that was descended from Robert the Strong, and was founded by Hugh Capet during the feudal period of the Middle Ages. |
| Carolingian Dynasty | A dynasty of rulers descended from the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century A.D., spanning ca. 613 to 987 A.D., and resurrected the idea of the Western Roman Empire. |
| Cathwulf | An Anglo-Saxon insular scholar and Carolingian courtier known primarily for his letter to Charlemagne (Charles the Great) ca. 775 A.D. |
| Celts | Groups of Indo-European peoples living in Western and Central Europe ca. 700 BCE to ca. 400 CE, identified by cultural and linguistic similarities that were absorbed by the Roman Empire from the 1st century B.C. and continued to thrive in regions such as Ireland and northern Britain. |
| Chaldaean | People of Chaldea, a small territory in the southeastern corner of Ancient Mesopotamia that existed ca. the 10th/9th and mid-6th centuries B.C. and was absorbed into the population of Babylonia. |
| Charlemagne (Charles the Great) (ca. 742-814 A.D.) | King of the Franks and Christian Roman Emperor of the West that shaped medieval Europe through what came to be known as the Carolingian Renaissance. |
| Charles Darwin (1809-1882 A.D.) | British naturalist and biologist known for his theory of evolution and his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. |
| Charles II (Charles the Bald) (823-877 A.D.) | Son of Louis the Pious and Carolingian ruler of the Kingdom of the Franks from 840. |
| Charles II (Charles the Lame) (ca. 1254-1309 A.D.) | The son of King Charles I and Beatrice of Provence who became King of Naples, Count of Provence and Forcalquier (1285–1309), Prince of Achaea (1285–1289), and Count of Anjou and Maine (1285–1290). |
| Charles Martel (ca. 688-741 A.D.) | The illegitimate son of Pippin II of Herstal and the de facto ruler of Francia from 718 until his death. Martel was also the grandfather of Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman Emperor. |
| Charles of Durazzo (ca. 1345-1386 A.D.) | King of Naples who had been sent as a child hostage after his father’s, Louis of Durazzo, failed rebellion against his cousins, Joanna I of Naples and Louis of Taranto ca. 1360. |
| Charles V (Charles le Sage) (1338-1380 A.D.) | King of France from 1364, and a known bibliophile, whose skillful management of the Crown replenished the prestige of the House of Valois. |
| Charles VI (Charles le Fou) (1368-1422 A.D.) | King of France from 1380 until his death, and is known for a mental illness that contributed to a series of decisions that lost him large portions of France to English control. |
| Christine de Pizan (ca. 1364-1430 A.D.) | The first female professional writer and historiographer of the Middle Ages who advocated for women’s equality. |
| Conn Cétchathach (Conn of the Hundred Battles) (d. 157 A.D.) | Legendary High King and ancestor of the dynasties that became the Connachta (including Uí Néill) and Airgialla, and was the forebear all the noble families of Leth Cuinn (the northern half of Ireland) that dominated Ireland in the early Middle Ages. |
| Conrad of Hirsau (ca. 1070-1150 A.D.) | A German Benedictine monk, possible teacher in the abbey of St Peter and St Paul at Hirsau, and a writer known for his literary work Dialogus super auctores (Dialog on the Authors). |
| Copts (Christian Egyptians) | Followers of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and Egypt’s largest minority population of Christians in the Middle East. |
| Council of Constance (1414–1418 A.D.) | The council summoned by John XXIII with the support of Emperor Sigismund that ended the Western Schism with the election of Pope Martin V. |
| Council of Pisa (1409 A.D.) | An unsuccessful council of the Roman Catholic Church that convened with the intention to end the Great Schism (also known as the Western Schism). |
| Cumaean Sibyl | A priestess presiding over the Apollonian oracle at Cumae, a Greek colony near Naples, said to have guided Aeneas in his descent to the Underworld. |
| Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) (ca. 590-529 B.C.) | Conqueror who founded the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian empire. |
| Dál Fiatach | The name of one of the two leading populations and their territory in Northeast Ireland, part of Ulaid, from the third to the 12th century. |
| Dál nAraide | Proto-kingdom of early Ireland occupying an area of Northeastern Ireland, under Ulaid, during the Middle Ages. |
| Daphne | A Greek Naiad-nymph of the river Ladon of Arkadia who was turned into a laurel tree by Gaia to escape pursuits made by Apollo. |
| Denis Diderot (1713-1784 A.D.) | French philosopher, writer, and co-editor of Encyclopédie. |
| Diarmait mac Áed Sláne (d. 665 A.D.) | One of the younger sons of Áed Sláine who succeeded as a joint High King of Ireland (Brega) with his brother, Blathmac. |
| Diego de Valera (ca. 1412–1488 A.D.) | A Spanish nobleman, diplomat, author, and historian active in the courts of Juan II, Enrique IV and the Catholic Monarchs, Isabel and Fernando. |
| Dominican Order (Order of Preachers) | A Catholic religious order created by St. Dominic de Guzman in 1216 A.D. |
| Druid (drui) | An ancient Celtic priesthood comprised of high-ranking, learned individuals that appear in Irish and Welsh sagas, and Christian legends. |
| Duchy of Normandy | Territory granted to the Vikings by the French crown under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte in 911 to formalize Norman sovereignty. |
| Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919 A.D.) | German naturalist, trained physician, and advocate of Darwinism. |
| Eve | The original human woman according to Judeo-Christian and Islamic tradition. |
| Ferri/Ferry Cassinel (d. ca. 1390) | The bishop of Lodève and Auxerre, and eventual archbishop of Reims for the Roman Catholic Church. |
| Filí (or filidh) | An aristocratic class of professional poets in ancient Ireland who were responsible for the preservation of tales and genealogies, doing so by composing poems that recalled the past and present glory of the ruling class. |
| Flemish Aristocracy | An elite class that resided in Flanders, a historic territory located in what was considered the Low Countries, which was within the cultural and political orbit of France and Germany. |
| Fourth Council of the Lateran | The twelfth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church convened by Pope Innocent III (1213) and took place in the Lateran Palace in Rome (1215). |
| Francis Bacon (1561–1626 A.D.) | An early modern English philosopher and statesman who advanced concepts of natural philosophy and the scientific method. |
| Franciscan | A member of a Christian religious order founded in 1209 by St. Francis of Assisi. |
| Franks | A confederation of Germanic tribes who originally settled between the Rhine and the Weser Rivers, and first entered recorded history in the 3rd century A.D. |
| French Humanists | Individuals following the cultural shift in France that aimed to embrace an Italian philosophical stance that emphasized the independent agency of human beings. |
| Gaius Julius Caesar (ca. 100-44 B.C.) | Roman military leader, politician, and self-proclaimed dictator for life of the Roman Empire before being assassinated by his political rivals. |
| Galatian | A native or inhabitant of the ancient region of Galatia in central Asia Minor, which was conquered by the Gauls ca. 278–277 B.C. and later became a Roman province. |
| Gauthier de Metz (Gauthier de Més en Loherains) (ca. 1201-1300 A.D.) | A French priest and poet primarily known for his encyclopedic poem L’Image du Monde. |
| Georges Duby (1919-1996 A.D.) | A French scholar and historian who specialized in the social and economic history of the Middle Ages. |
| Gerard of Cambrai (Gerard of Florennes) (ca. 975-1051 A.D.) | The bishop of Cambrai and former chaplain to Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor. |
| Gilbert Haye (Sir Gilbert of the Haye) (b. ca. 1403-1456) | Scottish poet and translator of French works, including the manuscript L’Arbre des Batailles. |
| Gilgamesh (ca. 2900–2700 B.C.) | A legendary hero said to be the king of the Sumerian city of Uruk and a central character in the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the great masterpieces of ancient cuneiform literature. |
| Gilles Bellemère (1342–1407 A.D.) | A prominent French canonist (expert in canon law). |
| Giovanni di Fidanza (Bonaventure of Bagnoregio) (ca. 1217-1274 A.D.) | A Franciscan friar, Master of Theology at the University of Paris, Minister General of the Franciscan Order, and Cardinal of the Catholic Church. |
| Gontier Col (ca. 1355-1418 A.D.) | A French statesman and humanist who was a secretary and diplomat to the king during the reign of Charles VI. |
| Guillaume III Roger de Beaufort (ca. 1332-1395 A.D.) | Viscount of Turenne, nephew of Pope Clement VI, and the brother of Pope Gregory XI. |
| H.G. Wells (Herbert George Wells) (1866-1946 A.D.) | English novelist commonly referred to as the father of science fiction. |
| Hathor | One of the goddesses of ancient Egypt who was associated with love, fertility, and pleasure; and is often depicted as a woman with bovine features. |
| Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862 A.D.) | An American author, naturalist, and philosopher. |
| Henry VI (1421 – 1471 A.D.) | The last king of England of the Lancastrian dynasty, crowned in 1429 and, due to his father’s successes against the French, was the king of France in 1431. |
| Hera | Queen of the ancient Greek gods, the wife of Zeus, and the goddess of marriage, family, and childbirth. |
| Heraclius (ca. 575-641 A.D) | The emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 610 to 641 A.D. |
| Herodotus of Halicarnassus (ca. 484-425 B.C.) | A Dorian Greek historian regarded as the “father of history”, and is most known for his The Histories. |
| Hezilo of Hildesheim (ca. 1020-1079 A.D.) | Bishop of Hildesheim from 1054 to 1079 A.D. |
| Hincmar of Reims (ca. 806-882 A.D.) | An archbishop, canon lawyer, theologian, and influential political counselor of the Carolingian Dynasty. |
| Honorat (Honoré) Bovet (Bonnet, Bonet, Bouvet…) (ca. 1340-1410 A.D.) | Benedictine prior of Salon, diplomat to the king of France during the Great Schism, and author of the unofficial military treatise L’Arbre des Batailles. |
| Humbaba | The giant guardian of the Cedar Forest, home of the gods, who was slaughtered in the Epic of Gilgamesh. |
| Inanna | Goddess of the Mesopotamian pantheon and the ancient Sumerian goddess of love and war. |
| Íñigo López de Mendoza y de la Vega (1398-1458 A.D.) | The 1st Marquis of Santillana and son of Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, admiral of Castile; as well as a prominent Castilian politician and writer during the reign of John II of Castile. |
| Ippolito Aldobrandini (Pope Clement VIII) (1536-1605 A.D.) | Pope and ruler of the Papal States (territories of central Italy with papal sovereignty) from 1592 to 1605 A.D., and the last pontiff to serve during the Counter-Reformation. |
| Isaiah | A critical prophet ca. 8th century B.C. who is the namesake of the biblical Book of Isaiah, a major prophetic section of the Old Testament. |
| Isfandiyar | Crown prince and legendary Iranian hero depicted in Abu’l Qasim Firdausi’s Shahnama (Book of Kings). |
| Isidore of Seville (ca. 560-636 A.D.) | Spanish encyclopaedist, theologian, and archbishop of Seville who wrote Etymologiae ca. the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. |
| Israelites | Members of the Twelve Tribes of Israel in early history, descendants of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob (Israel) according to the Book of Genesis. |
| Jacobus de Varagine (ca. 1228-1298 A.D.) | Archbishop of Genoa, Italian chronicler, and a medieval hagiologist (one who writes about the lives of saints) who wrote the Golden Legend. |
| Jacques Fournier (Pope Benedict XII) (ca. 1280-1342 A.D.) | The third Avignon pope who ruled from 1334 to 1342 A.D., and one who was particularly devoted to reforming the Church. |
| James II of Aragon (1267-1327 A.D.) | King of Aragon (1291-1327 A.D.) and Sicily (1285-1295 A.D.). |
| Jane Hirshfield (b. 1953 A.D.) | Award-winning American poet, essayist, and translator. |
| Jean de Meun (ca. 1240-1305 A.D.) | One of the authors of the popular Medieval romance Roman de la Rose. |
| Jean de Montreuil (ca. 1354-1418 A.D.) | French statesman, humanist, and politician. |
| Jean de Valois (1340-1416 A.D.) | Duke of Berry, patron of the arts, and uncle of three successive kings of France (Jean the Good, Charles V, and Charles VI). |
| Jean le Fèvre de Saint-Remy (ca. 1394-1468 A.D.) | Burgundian chronicler during the Hundred Years’ War, lord of Saint Remy, and served as the King of Arms to the Order of the Golden Fleece founded by Philip the Good. |
| Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717-1783 A.D.) | French mathematician, philosopher, and co-editor of the Encyclopédie. |
| Jesus Christ (Jesus of Nazareth) (d. ca. 30 A.D.) | Jewish prophet and central figure of Christianity. |
| Joanna I of Naples (1326-1382 A.D.) | Queen of Naples and Countess of Provence who adopted Louis I of Anjou, favoring him as over Charles of Durazzo. |
| John Bunyan (1628-1688 A.D.) | English preacher and author best known for writing The Pilgrim’s Progress. |
| John of Legnano (Giovanni da Legnano) (ca. 1320-1383 A.D.) | Italian jurist, lawyer of canon and civil law, and foremost professor of law at the University of Bologna who was a prominent defender of Pope Urban VI at the time of the Western Schism. |
| John Talbot (ca. 1384-1453 A.D.) | English nobleman, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, and prominent commander during the final phase of the Hundred Years’ War. |
| John the Apostle (ca. 6-100 A.D.) | Saint, author, and one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. |
| Juan Osborne | Contemporary architect, Spanish designer, and programmer who created the text-to-tree diagram In Obama’s Words. |
| Kalevide | A benevolent giant of Estonian folklore featured in Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald’s epic poem Kalevipoeg. |
| Lambertus de Sancto Audomaro (Lambert of Saint-Omer) (ca. 1061-1250 A.D.) | French Benedictine monk, chronicler, and canon of Saint-Omer most well-known for his Liber floridus. |
| Louis I (Louis the Great) (1326-1382 A.D.) | King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 A.D. and the king of Poland from 1370 A.D. |
| Louis I of Anjou (1339-1384 A.D.) | The younger son of King John II of France and the first of the Angevin branch of the French royal house, having been adopted by Queen Joanna I of Naples. |
| Louis II of Anjou (1377-1417 A.D.) | Duke of Anjou and the count of Provence who made claims to the Kingdom of Naples in the attempt to enforce the Angevin claims to the Neapolitan throne sparked by Louis I. |
| Louis the Pious (ca. 778-840 A.D.) | King of the Franks and of Aquitaine, and the only surviving son of Charlemagne and Hildegard. |
| Malachy Mór (fl. ca. 948–1022 A.D.) | High King of Ireland that was both the rival and eventual tributary of Brian Boru, King of Munster. |
| Margaret of Anjou (1430-1482 A.D.) | The daughter of René I of Anjou, queen consort of King Henry VI, and a leader of the Lancastrians in the Wars of the Roses (1455–1485 A.D.). |
| Marie d’Anjou (1404-1463 A.D.) | The eldest daughter of Louis II of Anjou and the Queen of France (wife to King Charles VII). |
| Marmousets | Name coined in the chronicles of Jean Froissart referring to a group of counselors to Charles VI of France with humble origins active ca. 1388 to 1392. |
| Matfre Ermengaud of Béziers (d. ca. 1322 A.D.) | A Franciscan friar, legist, and troubadour from Béziers who wrote Breviari d’Amor (ca. 1288). |
| Mauritius of Leiden (ca. 1401-1500 A.D.) | A fifteenth-century Dominican preacher. |
| Medes | An ancient Iranian people ca. 1st millennium B.C. who inhabited an area known as Media between western and northern Iran. |
| Moors | A term used by Christian Europeans during the Middle Ages to reference Muslims who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula, Maghreb, and western Africa. |
| Mug Nuadat (b. ca. 180 A.D.) | The legendary king of Munster in the 2nd century A.D. and the main rival of Conn Cétchathach. |
| Nicolas Poillevillain de Clémanges (or Clamanges) (1363-1437 A.D.) | French humanist and theologian who taught at the University of Paris in 1391 and became a rector at the university from 1393 to 1395. |
| Normans | A population that rose in the medieval Duchy of Normandy as a result of the intermingling between Norse settlers and the indigenous West Franks and Gallo-Romans. |
| Norsemen | A catch-all name for a North Germanic ethnic group of the Early Middle Ages, which also encompassed the Vikings. |
| Occitans | A Romance-speaking ethnic group originating from the historical region of Occitania (southern France, northeastern Spain and northwestern Italy) |
| Odin (Wotan) | One of the principal gods in Norse mythology who was associated with wisdom, death, and war. |
| Orator | A skilled and powerful public speaker. |
| Osiris | The ancient Egyptian god of the Underworld and brother-husband to Isis. |
| Otto/Odda Colonna (Pope Martin V) (1369 –1431 A.D.) | The pope successor of Gregory XII whose election effectively ended the Great Schism of 1378–1417 A.D. |
| Ottonian Dynasty | A Saxon dynasty of German monarchs (ca. 919–1024 A.D.) that succeeded the Carolingian dynasty, named after the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I. |
| Pepin II (ca. 823-865 A.D.) | King of Aquitaine and grandfather of Charlemagne. |
| Pepin the Short (ca. 715-768 A.D.) | The first king of the Carolingian dynasty and the father of Charlemagne. |
| Peter of Poitiers (ca. 1130-1205 A.D.) | A French scholastic theologian born near Poitiers who became the chair of scholastic theology at the University of Paris. |
| Peter of Spain (fl. ca. 1201-1300 A.D.) | A thirteenth-century logician and author of the Tractatus, which became a standard textbook on Aristotelian logic. |
| Philip II (Philip the Bold) (1342-1404 A.D.) | The youngest son of King John II of France who, after his capture at the Battle of Poitiers of 1356 and released with the Treaty of Brétigny of 1360, became the duke of Burgundy and one of the most powerful men in France. |
| Philippe de Vitri (Vitry) (ca. 1291-1361) | Royal notary of the French king, a diplomat in Avignon, and musical theorist who wrote Le chapel des fleurs de lys. |
| Phoenician | Inhabitants of Phoenicia, an ancient region along the coast of the Mediterranean ca. the 1st millennium B.C. (modern day Syria, Lebanon and northern Israel). |
| Pierre de Chevreuse (d. ca. 1393) | The adviser and financier of the House of Valois from 1362 to 1393, during the reigns of Kings Jean II, Charles V, and Charles VI. |
| Pierre-Roger de Beaufort (Pope Gregory XI) (1329-78 A.D.) | The last legitimate Avignonese pope who returned the papal court to Rome, and whose death marked the beginning of the Great (Papal or Western) Schism. |
| Pomona | The Roman goddess of fruit trees, gardens, and orchards. |
| Postglossators | Italian jurists of Northern Italy who, in the mid-twelfth century, advocated for the revival of Roman law and the acceptance of private law customs. |
| Pope Leo III (d. 816 A.D.) | A pope from 795-816 A.D who crowned Charlemagne as the Emperor of the Romans in 800 A.D. |
| Porphyry (ca. 234–305 A.D.) | A Neoplatonist philosopher born in Tyre in Phoenicia. |
| Poseidon | God of the sea, earthquakes, and horses in ancient Greek mythology. |
| Postglossator | Commenters and developers of medieval Roman law who formed a European legal school in Italy and France during the fourteenth century. |
| Ra | The king of the deities in ancient Egyptian mythology, the father of all creation, and the god of the sun. |
| Ramón Llull (1232 – 1315 A.D.) | A Majorcan philosopher who developed a philosophical system referred to as the Art to prove the universal truth of Christian logic. |
| Raymond Bertrand de Got (Pope Clement V) (ca. 1264-1314 A.D.) | The first of the Avignonese popes who is known for his contributions in suppressing the order of the Knights Templar. |
| Raymond de Turenne (Raymond-Louis Roger de Beaufort) (ca. 1352-1413 A.D.) | Viscount of Turenne and son of Guillaume III Roger who became known as le Fléau de Provence (Scourge of Provence). |
| Richard of St Victor (d. 1173) | A twelfth century Scottish theologian who wrote an extensive number of biblical commentaries and works on mystical or spiritual theology. |
| Robert I of France (ca. 866-923 A.D.) | King of West Francia (the western region of the Frankish Empire) from 922 to 923 who successfully overthrew the Carolingian king, Charles the Simple. |
| Robert of Geneva (Clement VII) (1378-1394 A.D.) | The first Avignon antipope of the Great Schism who was elected by French cardinals who opposed Urban VI. |
| Romulus (ca. 771-717 B.C.) | Legendary co-founder and first king of the city of Rome. |
| Royal C. Bierce (b. ca. 1808 A.D.) | Nineteenth-century artist and counselor at law. |
| Rudolf of Fulda (d. 865 A.D.) | A Benedictine monk active at Fulda Abbey in what is currently the German state of Hesse during the 9th century. |
| Sabine | An ancient Italic tribe located in the mountainous country east of the Tiber River, notably featured in Roman lore. |
| Saint Peter (d. ca. 64 A.D.) | One of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ and is considered one of the first leaders of the early Christian Church. |
| Saracens | A term used during the Middle Ages to describe any person who professed the religion of Islam. |
| Saxons | A vastly influential Germanic tribe that originally occupied regions known today as the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark. |
| Scythians | Ancient nomadic tribes of warriors ca. 900-200 B.C. who originally lived in present day southern Siberia. |
| Sénéchal | An officer of the royal palace, or one who held a senior position in a royal, ducal, or noble household during the Middle Ages |
| Shamash | The ancient Mesopotamian sun god who is also known as Utu in the Sumerian tradition, the twin brother of Inanna. |
| Skuld | One of the three sister Norns, female beings who create and control fate, in Norse mythology who represents the Future. |
| Squire | A young nobleman who served a medieval knight as an attendant or armor bearer before becoming a knight himself. |
| Sumerian | A native of Sumer, an ancient civilization founded ca. 4500 to 4000 B.C. in the Mesopotamian region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that is responsible for many of the most important innovations known to modern society. |
| Talbot Master (and his workshop) (ca. 1401-1500) | 15th century illuminator active in Rouen, named after the manuscript Poems and Romances(the “Talbot Shrewsbury book”). |
| The Ulaid / Ulidiands | Early people of the Gaelic over-Kingdom of Ulaid in Northeastern Ireland during the Middle Ages. |
| Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 A.D.) | An Italian Dominican priest and Scriptural theologian. |
| Titus Livius (Livy) (ca. 59 B.C.-17 A.D.) | A Roman historian, writer of philosophical dialogues, and the author of the authorized version of the history of the Roman republic. |
| Urd | One of the three sister Norns, female beings who create and control fate, in Norse mythology who represents the Past. |
| Valois (House of Valois, Valois Courts, Valois Dynasty) | A branch of the Capetian dynasty that acceded to the French throne in 1328 A.D. with Philip VI and continued until the death of Henry III in 1589 A.D. |
| Vassals | Someone who has agreed to fight for a king or lord when needed in exchange for land to live on (a feudal tenant). |
| Verdandi | One of the three sister Norns, female beings who create and control fate, in Norse mythology who represents the Present. |
| Vikings | Scandinavian pirates who raided and colonized vast regions of Europe between the 9th and 11th centuries. |
| Vincent of Beauvais (ca. 1190-1264 A.D.) | A priest, theologian, French scholar, and medieval encyclopedist whose Speculum majus(“Great Mirror”) was one of the greatest encyclopaedias in Europe that remained popular until the 18th century. |
| Virgin Mary (b. ca. 18 B.C) | Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother of Jesus. |
| Visigoths | A western tribe of the Goths (a Germanic people) who settled west of the Black Sea c. 3rd century B.C., successfully invaded the Roman Empire, and extended their influence to the Iberian Peninsula and Eastern Europe. |
| William Forsell Kirby (1844-1912 A.D.) | English entomologist and folklorist. |
| William Sinclair (1410–1480 A.D.) | A Norwegian and Scottish nobleman who became the first Earl of Caithness and was the last Earl of Orkney. |
| Willibald of Mainz (ca. 700-787 A.D.) | Anglo-Saxon bishop of Eichstätt known for his extensive travels. |
| Zeus | The chief figure in Greek mythology and the Olympian god of the sky and thunder. |
Terms
| Age of Empires | Ancient Mesopotamia ca. 1000 B.C.–1 A.D. that saw the prolific rise and fall civilizations during the Neo-Babylonian period, Neo-Assyrian empire, Assyrian rule, Neo-Babylonian empire, Achaemenid dynasty, Macedonian and Seleucid dynasties, and the Arsacid dynasty. |
| Amour courtois (courtly love) | A medieval European literary conception of idealized courtly love that emphasized nobility and chivalry. |
| Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland | A Norman military expedition to Ireland in 1169 at the behest of the deposed King of Leinster, Dermot MacMurrough (Diarmait Mac Murchada), that fundamentally influenced Irish culture over the course of 800 years. |
| Arbor apostolocalis | A tree model created by Ramón Llull to explain matters regarding ecclesiastical studies and the organization of the Church. |
| Arbor elementalis | A tree model created by Ramón Llull to explain matters of physics, metaphysics, and cosmology. |
| Arbor moralis | A tree model created by Ramón Llull to explain matters of virtues and vices. |
| Arbor porphyriana(Porphyrian trees or arbor Porphirii) | Metaphorical tree used by Porphyry to classify Aristotle’s Categories, which was later illustrated. |
| Arbor quaestionalis | A tree model created by Ramón Llull that covers four thousand questions on the various Llullian arts. |
| Arbor sensualis | A tree model created by Ramón Llull to explain matters concerning the senses. |
| Arboreal iconography | A system of tree images used artists to convey a particular meaning. |
| Arboreal schemata | A representation, descriptive/linguistic or visual/illustrated, of a plan or theory in a form that resembles a tree. |
| Arbores consanguinitatis(Tree of Consanguinity) | A diagram that displayed marital affiliations influenced by the arbor juris, a matrix diagram used in Roman law systems for two millennia to determine the legal boundaries of kinship, for the use of the Christian Church. |
| Arbores exemplificalis | A tree model created by Ramón Llull to explain matters concerning the contents of knowledge. |
| Arbores historiarum | Memorization device created by Peter of Poitiers for a synoptic overview of biblical history from the world’s creation to thetime of Christ and the apostles. |
| Arborescence | Resembling a tree in growth, structure, or appearance. |
| Arboricide | Deliberate destruction of trees. |
| Aristotelian | A philosophical tradition (or student) inspired by the work of Aristotle. |
| Ars memorativa (art of memory) | Mnemonic principles and techniques used to organize memory, improve recall, and assist in the combination of ideas. |
| Artes praedicandi (art of preaching) | Treatises written for preachers of Western Europe to explain the different means of composing a sermon. |
| Auctoritates | From the Latin auctoritas, the origin of the English word for “authority”. |
| Aurea mediocritas (The Golden Mean) | A middle station in a society, in which a person is neither poor nor a part of the aristocracy, and a position that was considered the best for pious and industrious men and women according to the Book of Proverbs. |
| Axis mundi | A symbol representing the center of the world where the heavens connect with the earth, and has been known as a cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, or center of the world. |
| Bibliophile | A person who collects or has a great love of books. |
| Bile Dathi | An ash tree from Irish legend and one of the five sacred trees of Ireland. |
| Bile Torlan | An ash tree from Irish legend and one of the five sacred trees of Ireland. |
| Bipedal | An animal that uses two legs for walking. |
| Bucolic | Relates to subjects regarding the pleasant aspects of country life, and is occasionally used to refer to pastoral poems. |
| Canon law | A code of ecclesiastical laws that governed the Catholic Church. |
| Cardinal sins | Any of the seven deadly sins according to the Christian tradition. |
| Cardinal virtues | Refers to the four virtues in classical philosophy and Christian theology: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. |
| Caste | An arbitrary system of hierarchy that helps determine societal standing. |
| Castilian | The dialect of Spanish spoken in Castile by the natives (Castilians) of the region. |
| Castilian Civil War | A war of succession over the Crown of Castile from 1351 to 1369 that began after the death of king Alfonso XI of Castile in 1350 and became part of the Hundred Years’ War. |
| Catalan | A Romance language related to Castilian Spanish and Provençal, widely spoken in Catalonia, Andorra, the Balearic Islands, and parts of southern France. |
| Catholicism | One of the three major branches of Christianity that follows the faith, practice, and order of the Roman Catholic Church. |
| Christendom | The worldwide society of Christians that, during the Middle Ages consisted of two distinct groups: the sacerdotium (ecclesiastical hierarchy) and the imperium (secular leaders). |
| Christianity | A monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth (Jesus Christ), followed by Eastern, Roman Catholic, and Protestant bodies. |
| Civil law | A legal system based on the codification of laws originating from Ancient Roman and was used across Medieval continental Europe. |
| Crab Using | An ash tree from Irish legend and one of the five sacred trees of Ireland. |
| Cross | An upright post with a transverse bar, as used in antiquity for crucifixion. |
| Crusades | A series of religious wars that mainly occurs during the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries between Christians and Muslims for the control of holy sites considered sacred by both groups. Crusade is also a term used to express a campaign for political, social, or religious change. |
| Crux ansata (cross with a handle) | An ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol used to represent life, also known as the ankh or key of life. |
| Cuneiform | A system of writing developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia ca. 3500-3000 B.C. consisting of wedge-shaped characters that used between 600 and 1,000 characters impressed on clay to spell words by dividing them up into syllables. |
| Cylinders (Chaldaean) | Small barrel-like objects made of fired clay usually inscribed with cuneiform or simplistic designs. |
| Daedala | An ancient Greek Festival in honor of the reconciliation of Hera with Zeus, one (Little Daedala) held every 6 years, the other (Great Daedala) held every 59 years. |
| Darwin’s Tree of Life | A tree diagram that helped Charles Darwin explain his theory of evolution. |
| Date palm | A tree in the palm family (Arecaceae) and one of the oldest known crops cultivated in western Asia and northern Africa for its fruit. |
| Decretals (epistolae decretales) | Papal letters that claim to have universal validity and clarify questions of Church law. |
| Dendrolatry | The veneration or worship of trees. |
| Dendromorphic | To take on a tree-form. |
| Didactic | Designed to teach an intended lesson. |
| Diocese (or bishopric) | A district under the rule of a bishop in the Christian Church. |
| Ecclesiastic | Belonging to or connected with the Christian Church. |
| Encyclopedia | A book or collection of books that attempts to contain information on all branches of common knowledge or comprehensively evaluates a particular branch of knowledge. |
| Encyclopedic tradition | The transmission of knowledge and techniques from one generation to the next for the creation of encyclopedias and other compendiums of knowledge. |
| Eschatological | Refers to Eschatology, which concerns a branch of theology that follows the death, judgment, and final destiny of humankind. |
| Exegesis | A critical explanation or interpretation of a text, usually involving Scripture. |
| Feudal tenures | A system of property ownership in which the ownership rests with a sovereign who can grant permissions to the land to others in return for a service or loyalty. |
| Fief | An estate of land granted by a feudal lord on the condition of a recipient’s adherence to feudal obligations. |
| Forest Encyclopaedia | A term referring to Ramón Llull’s manuscript Arbor scientiae (Tree of science). |
| Francophone | French-speaking. |
| Glosses | Text added either between the lines or in the margins of a manuscript to clarify or expand on the meaning of the main text. |
| Hagiography | Writing of the lives of saints. |
| Hellenistic | A period of Classical antiquity relating to Greek history and culture from the death of Alexander the Great to the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C. with the defeat of Cleopatra and Mark Antony by Octavian. |
| Hereditary | The transfer of something (a title, office, right, or quality) to another based on genetic inheritance. |
| High-seat pillar | The main support pillars of houses in Iceland and Scandinavia during the Viking Age that framed the high-seat, the place occupied by the head of the household, and were objects that were occasionally used to interpret the will of the gods in deciding where to settle. |
| Huluppu tree | A tree moved by Inanna, a goddess from ancient Sumerian myth, to her garden in Uruk with the intention of having it carved into a throne. |
| Hundred Years’ War | A series of conflicts between the kingdoms of England and France from 1337-1453 A.D. over claims to the French throne. |
| Irmensäule | A stone column located in the HildesheimCathedral of the Assumption of Mary. |
| Irminsul | A sacred, pillar-like object that played an important role in the Germanic paganism of the Saxons and was destroyed by Charlemagne during the Saxon Wars. |
| Islamic conquest | The invasion of Muslim forces in 711 A.D. that conquered the Iberian peninsula and gatewayed the creation of Islamic Spain, a multi-cultural mixing of the people and monotheistic religions, that thrived until 1492 A.D. |
| Languedoc reform commission | Group tasked ca. 1389 A.D. by Charles VI to help restore order to Languedoc’s neglected financial, administrative and military situation. |
| Lay scholar | A person who becomes an expert on a topic without holding the authority or notoriety of a profession within a university or in the realm of politics. |
| League of Aix (Union d’Aix) | An affiliation of communities and towns in Provence that opposed the Angevin dynasty during the fourteenth century. |
| Legists | A specialist in law, especially Roman or civil law. |
| Lignum vitae (Tree of Life) | A diagram that presents the life events of Christ in the form of a tree that was inspired by St. Bonaventure’s thirteenth-century text Lignum vitae. |
| Logos | An ancient Greek philosophy that deals with the process of human reasoning and intelligence that was adopted by Christianity as a means of comprehending the universe within the framework of their religion. |
| Lullian Forest | A term referring to the sum of trees in Ramón Llull’s manuscript Arbor scientiae (Tree of science). |
| Marginalia | Marks made in the margins of a book or other documents. |
| Matfre Ermengaud of Béziers’ Tree of Love | The proposed structure and means of organization for Matfre Ermengaud of Béziers’ manuscript Breviari d’amor, based on the metaphor of a tree. |
| May Day | A European springtime festival whose traditions can be traced to ancient Rome, which has evolved to mark an international workers’ holiday. |
| Medieval historiosophy | The early conception and interpretation of history according to Christianity. |
| Merlin’s oak | An old oak that grew in the center of Carmarthen that was supposedly cursed by the wizard Merlin so that if it were to ever be removed, the town would drown. |
| Metonymy | A figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept. |
| Middle Ages | The period of European history between the fall of the Roman Empire to the fall of Constantinople (c. 500-1500 A.D.). |
| Mnemonic | A technique used for retaining or retrieving information in human memory. |
| Monarchism | The principles of a monarchy and the advocacy of monarchical rule. |
| Monasticism | A religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. |
| Monotheism | The belief in one, all-supreme deity most universally referred to as God. |
| New logic (logica nova or logica modernorum) | The dominant logical tradition in western Europe during the middle of the twelfth century derived from the works of Aristotle translated by James of Venice. |
| Nobility | A socially or politically privileged class whose titles are conferred by descent or by royal decree. |
| Norse cosmology | The study of the cosmos through the lens of ancient North-Germanic peoples who divided the universe into nine realms bridged together by the great world-tree Yggdrasil. |
| Norse mythology | A Scandinavian mythological framework containing tales of various deities that was upheld during the Viking Age (ca. 790-1100 A.D.). |
| Oak of Jupiter | A sacred tree of the Germanic pagans that was cut down by the Anglo-Saxon missionary Saint Boniface and his followers, whose wood was used to build a church dedicated to Saint Peter. |
| Occitan (Langue d’Oc or Provençal) | A romance language spoken across southern France as well as parts of north-western Italy and northern Spain that evolved from vernacular Latin. |
| Old and New Testaments | Two divisions that make up the Christian Bible. The Old Testament, the first division, explains the creation of the World, the exodus of Israelites, and the Ten Commandments. The New Testament, the second division, focuses on the life and teachings of Jesus and the Christian Church. |
| Old logic (logica vetus) | The logical tradition in western Europe that is based on the works of Aristotle recognized in the Latin West prior to the translations made by James of Venice. |
| Original Sin | Humanity’s inborn tendency to sin, which was inherited from Adam and Eve as a consequence of their fall from Paradise. |
| Orlog | The ‘primal layers’ of the Old Norse concept of fate personified by the sisters Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld. |
| Paganism | Spiritual beliefs and practices grounded in ancient polytheistic religions outside Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. |
| Great Schism (Papal Schism or Western Schism) | A split within the Roman Catholic Church driven by politics that lasted from 1378 to 1417 A.D. |
| Pastoral | Portrayal or evocation of country life. |
| Peridexion trees | A tree of Eastern origin that was used as a warning to Christians about the dangers of leaving the safety of the Church. |
| Petites encyclopédies | Small vulgarized compendiums of knowledge for the laity. |
| Pillar of Equilibrium | The central structure of the Tree of Life diagram used to represent Kabbalah, a system of Jewish mysticism. |
| Polytheism | The belief in and worship of more than one god. |
| Praedicare est arborisare | Latin for “to preach is to arborize”. |
| Prunus Padus | A deciduous tree with dark, bitter fruits commonly referred to as a Bird Cherry native to temperate Asia and Europe. |
| Quadrupedal | An animal that uses four legs for walking. |
| Ragnarök | The end of the world of gods and men according to Scandinavian mythology, recorded in the Icelandic poem Völuspá. |
| Ramusculi | The Latin word for “twig” or “branches”; ramusculus, ramusculi [m.] O. |
| Roman law | The legal system of ancient Rome that formed the basis of civil law. |
| Sacred pole | Object of religious veneration connected to representations of Asherah, a Canaanite mother-goddess. |
| Sacred trees | A tree which is considered worthy of spiritual respect or reverence. |
| Scala naturae (ladder of nature) | A linear hierarchical ranking of animals based on Aristotelian notions of perfection. |
| Scala praedicamentalis | Another name for the Tree of Porphyry, a device used for illustrating what is also called a “scale of being” or Aristotle’s scala naturae. |
| Scholasticism | A medieval European system of theology and philosophy based on Aristotelian logic and the writings of the early authorities of the Christian Church. |
| Scottish Reformation | The process of Scotland’s separation from the Papacy, which was part of a larger European Protestant Reformation that took place from the sixteenth century. |
| Scripture | Writings that are regarded as holy in a particular religion, and is a term primarily used to reference the Christian Bible. |
| Secular | Not belonging to or living in a religious order, or anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion. |
| Sefirotic Tree of Life | A tree diagram constructed of linked sefirot, individual attributes of God according to the Kabbalah. |
| Signification | The representation or conveying of meaning. |
| Spathe | A modified leaf on a plant that surrounds the spadix, a flowering spike that is typically thick and fleshy in appearance. |
| Spiritual arborescence | The process of conjuring Christ in the imagination through contemplation of trees. |
| Spiritual economy | The convergence of religion and matters of salvation with social and political economics for institutional profit and sustainability. |
| Stemmata | A diagram showing relationships, often used in reference to recorded genealogy (family trees). |
| Stirps | The Latin word for “stem” or “stock”; stirps, stirpis [f.] M. |
| Symbolon | A sign or object that indicates a particular identification, agreement, or some other intended meaning. |
| Telcha | Name possibly derived from the Old Irish word “tulach”, or “little hill”. |
| The Temptation of Eve | When Eve, according to the Book of Genesis, was tempted by a serpent to disobey God and eat the forbidden fruit that grew from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. |
| The Three Estates | The division of feudal society into three ‘estates’ or social classes, creating a trifunctional model of hierarchy made up of the clergy or le clergé (the first estate), nobility or la noblesse (the second estate), and the rest of the population or le tiers état (the third estate). |
| Theology | The study of the nature of God and religious belief. |
| Tree of fiefs | A tree diagram that illustrates fiefs and relates to the feudal legislation recorded in the Codex Justinianus from the shop of Hugonem à Porta (1553 A.D.). |
| Tree of Jesse | A genealogical depiction of descendancy from Jesse (father of king David) to Christ, and the origin of the “family tree” that is derived from a prophecy of Isaiah 11:1. |
| Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil | One of two paradisiacal trees mentioned in the Book of Genesis that is located in the Garden of Eden. |
| Tree of Suffering (arbre de douleur / arbre de deuil) | A description and, occasionally, illustrated diagram that displays the warring factions of concern in Honorat Bovet’s manuscript L’Arbre des Batailles. |
| Tree of vices (arbor mala / arbor virtutum) | A diagram used in the Middle Ages to display the relationships between Christian virtues (moral excellence). |
| Tree of virtues (arbor bona / arbor vitiorum) | A diagram used in the Middle Ages to display the relationships between Christian vices (sinful behaviors). |
| Trees of Incarnation | Another name for the Tree of Jesse or the Tree of Life. |
| Trees of the Sun and the Moon | Two holy trees that told the future, noted to have been visited by Alexander the Great. |
| Tree of Questions | A cognized child of the Tree of Suffering, in which the overall purpose was used to convey the structure and facilitate the readability of Honorat Bovet’s manuscript L’Arbre des Batailles. |
| Vestigial Dei | The Latin words for “the footprints of God”. |
| Volute | A spiral or twisting turn, form, or object. |
| Votive | An offering or consecration made to fulfill a vow. |
| Western Civilization | Reference to art, literature, culture, and ideas that originated in the eastern Mediterranean basin and evolved over the course of their spread across the western regions of continental Europe. |
| Wheel of Fortune | A symbol of the changeable nature of Fate. |
| Wikipedization | The process of on-going information editing that contributes to a dynamic knowledge network. |
| Yggdrasil (Mimir, Mimameith, or Mimi’s tree) | An immense sacred ash tree that connects the Nine Worlds of Norse cosmology, and has been referred to as the World Tree. |
| Εό Mugna | An oak tree from Irish legend and one of the five sacred trees of Ireland. |
| Εό Rossa | A yew tree from Irish legend and one of the five sacred trees of Ireland. |
Locations
| Abbey of Floreffe | A Premonstratensian monastery southwest of Namur, Belgium. |
| Abbey of Himmerod | A Cistercian monastery in western Germany founded c. 1135 A.D. by French Abbot Bernhard of Clairvaux. |
| Abbey Sainte Marie de Parc | A Premonstratensian monastery south of Leuven in modern day Belgium. |
| Ashur | The first capital of the Assyrian Empire located on the Tigris River in northern Mesopotamia that dates back to the 3rd millennium B.C. and is associated with the god Ashur. |
| Assyria | Ancient kingdom in northern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq as well as parts of Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey) that became a center to the greatest empires of the Middle East c. 1365 to 609 B.C. |
| Avignon | A city in southeastern France (Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur region), on the bank of the Rhône River, that was the seat of the papacy during the fourteenth century. |
| Babylon | Capital city of the Babylonian Empire founded ca. 2300 B.C. |
| Babylonia | Ancient cultural and political region in southeastern Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern southern Iraq) ca. 1890-539 B.C. |
| Byzantine Empire (Byzantium) | A powerful civilization that survived until 1453 A.D. with the fall of Constantinople, built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium ca. 330 A.D., after Roman emperor Constantine I declared it a “New Rome”. |
| Caenina | Ancient city of Latium, mentioned in the early history of Rome and the deeds of King Romulus. |
| Carmarthen town (Caerfyrddin / “Merlin’s Fort”) | A county town of Carmarthenshire in Wales, UK, located beside the River Tywi and with a history dating back to ca. 75 A.D. |
| Central Asia | A region of Asia that stretches east of the Caspian Sea, west of China, north of Afghanistan, and south of Russia. |
| Crew Hill (Cráeb Telcha) | A historic royal inauguration site near Glenavy, Co. Antrim (Northern Ireland). |
| Deventer | A city and municipality in the Salland historical region of the province of Overijssel, Netherlands purportedly founded by the missionary Lebuinus ca. 768 A.D. who built a church on the east bank of the river Ijssel that was sacked by Saxon forces ca. 772 A.D. |
| Eastern Civilization | A term used broadly for the geographic regions of Japan, China and Southeast Asia, and their cultures. |
| Egypt | A historically economic and culturally influential country located in the northeastern corner of Africa, unified c. 3100 B.C. |
| Embrun | A diocese of the Roman Catholic Church located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur region of Southern France. |
| Eresburg | One of the largest, historic Saxon hill forts in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany that was conquered by Charlemagne ca. 772 A.D. |
| Estonia | A northern European country bordered by the Baltic Sea and the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. |
| Euphrates River | One of the longest and most historic rivers in southwest Asia that defined ancient Mesopotamia, and joins with the Tigris River before flowing into the Persian Gulf. |
| Externsteine | A region of Asia that stretches east of the Caspian Sea, west of China, north of Afghanistan, and south of Russia. |
| Flanders | An area that constitutes the northern half of Belgium and was the most urbanized region of northern Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. |
| Francia | The kingdom inhabited and ruled by the Franks ca. 481-843 A.D. |
| Garden of Eden | A biblical earthly paradise created by God and inhabited by his first human creations, Adam and Eve, according to the Book of Genesis. |
| Gau | A Germanic term used in the Middle Ages for a region or district. |
| Germany | A country in Central Europe between the Baltic and North seas, and the southern Alps. |
| Holy Roman Empire | A term used by the thirteenth century in reference to a loosely integrated union of German states and city-states under the supreme rule of an emperor. |
| Iberian Peninsula (the land of the Iberians) | A region in southwestern Europe occupied by the territories of Spain and Portugal, and includes some parts of Southern France, Andorra, and Gibraltar. |
| India | A country in South Asia. |
| Ireland | An island nation on the westernmost edge of Europe. |
| Isle of Patmos | A Greek island in the Aegean Sea recognized as where John of Patmos received the visions found in the Book of Revelation and where the New Testament was written. |
| Khazaria (The Khazar Empire) | A commercial empire ca. 650-965/68 A.D. (possibly) established by the semi-nomadic Turkic tribes that covered what is now southeastern European Russia, southern Ukraine, Crimea, and Kazakhstan. |
| Kingdom of France | The resulting territory after the division of the Kingdom of the Franks (Francia) that emerged under the Capetian dynasty ca. 1000-1400 A.D., and precursor to modern France. |
| Kingdom of Jerusalem | A Crusader state that was established after the First Crusade ca. 1099-1291 A.D. by European Christian settlers. |
| Kingdom of Naples | A historical state that controlled the southern region of the Italian Peninsula and its Papal States ca. 1282-1816 A.D. |
| Lyon | A French city located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, officially established in 43 B.C. with the Roman colony of Lugdunum. |
| Magh-adhar | The ancient burial mound of the first-century warrior Adair and the medieval Inauguration Mound of the Dalcassian O’ Briens (Kings of Thomond). |
| Maison de la Tournelle | A decadent house on the Rue Saint-Jacques in Paris purportedly owned by the author Jean de Meun. |
| Mediterranean Sea | A portion of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by the continents of Europe, Africa, and Asia and covers approximately 2.5 million square kilometers. |
| Mesopotamia (between rivers) | A historic region of West Asia within the Tigris-Euphrates river system that was home to the ancient civilizations of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia |
| Middle East | A flexible geographic term that loosely covers the lands around the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea; including Arabia, Asia Minor, East Thrace, Egypt, Iran, the Levant, Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), and the Socotra Archipelago. |
| Monastery of Sainte Marie in Foigny | A Cistercian abbey in northeastern France established ca. 1121 A.D. by St. Bernard. |
| Mönchengladbach | A city in western Germany near the border with the Netherlands. |
| Nimrud (ancient Kalhu) | An ancient Mesopotamian city near Mosul (modern day northern Iraq) and the capital of the Assyrian Empire under Ashurnasirpal II, who built a magnificent palace on the east bank of the Tigris River. |
| Nineveh | The political capital of the ancient Assyrian Empire ca. 700 B.C., located in modern-day northern Iraq. |
| Normandy | A pivotal historic and cultural region of northern France dating back to ca. 56 B.C. |
| Notre-Dame de Bayons | A historic monastic commune in the municipality of Bayons, south-eastern France. |
| Notre-Dame de Chartres | A thirteenth-century A.D. cathedral located in the Centre-Val-de-Loire region of northern France, and a popular pilgrimage destination for medieval Western Christianity. |
| Parthian Empire | An immense Iranian empire of the ancient Near East (theeastern Mediterranean regions closest to Europe) ca. 247-224 A.D. that occupied all of modern Iran, Iraq, Armenia, parts of Turkey, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and, briefly, Pakistan. |
| Provence | A region of cultural and historical significance in southeastern France, which includes the départements of Bouches-du-Rhône, Vaucluse, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, and Var. |
| Prüfening Abbey | A Benedictine monastery on the outskirts of Regensburg, Germany. |
| Rheims | A city in the Marne département of northeastern France and a historic coronation site. |
| Rocamadour | A Marian Apparition site in south-central France that was an important pilgrimage destination during the Middle Ages. |
| Rome | A name that refers to both the historic capital of Italy and the Western Christian world, and a reference to an ancient city founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and Remus. |
| Rouen | A port city on the River Seine in northern France that, when the Vikings that settled there became Normans ca. 10th century A.D, became Normandy’s capital. |
| Rue Saint-Jacques | A street in the Latin Quarter of Paris that doubled as the base of the Dominican Order in Paris established ca. 1218 A.D. |
| Saint-Martin de l’Ile-Barbe | An abbey founded on the Île Barbe, outside Lyon, France in the 5th century A.D. |
| Salon (or Selonet/Selonnet) | A commune in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department of southeastern France. Not to be confused with Salon-de-Provence. |
| Sant Cugat del Vallès | Town and site of a fortified Benedictine monastic complex located north of central Barcelona, Spain. |
| Santiago de Compostela | A famous pilgrimage site in north-west Spain that became a symbol of Spanish Christians’ struggle against Islam. |
| Scandinavia | A historic subregion in Northern Europe that commonly refers to modern day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. |
| Syria | A country in Western Asia located on the east coast of the Mediterranean. |
| Teishebaini | A fortified capital in the ancient Kingdom of Urartu (modern Karmir Blur), built ca. mid-7th century B.C. |
| Teutoburg Forest | Forest in North Rhine-Westphalia that hosts the Externsteine and is the site of the defeat of the Roman commander Publius Quintilius Varus against Germanic forces ca. 9 A.D. |
| The Hildesheim Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary | An ancient Benedictine church in Hildesheim (north of Germany) built ca. 1010 and 1022 A.D. by Bernward, Bishop of Hildesheim. |
| Troy | An ancient city located on the mound of Hisarlık, overlooking the Turkish Aegean coast, whose siege by Mycenaean warriors from Greece ca. 13th century B.C. was immortalized in The Iliad. |
| Tullahogue | A hill on the outskirts of Tullyhogue village in Northern Ireland and the medieval ceremonial seat for the Kings of Tyrone (Cenel nEogain, a.k.a ‘The O’Neills’). |
| University of Avignon | A historic university located in Avignon, France that was founded by Pope Boniface VIII in 1303 A.D. |
| University of Paris | A historic university located in Paris, France that first appeared in the second half of the twelfth century A.D. |
| Visigothic Spain | Spain post-invasion of the Visigoths ca. 410 A.D. |
| Weser | A river of Lower Saxony in northwest Germany. |
| Western Europe | A term for the geographic region of the European continent surrounded by the North Sea, Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea that, historically, was used to differentiate from areas deemed a part of Eastern Europe. |
| Yerevan | The capital and largest city of Armenia. |
Literature
| Annála Uladh (Annals of Ulster) | The chronological historical records of Medieval Ireland, covering events ca. 431-1540 A.D. |
| Arbor scientiae (Tree of science) | A pioneering encyclopedia by the Majorcan writer Ramón Llull ca. 1295 A.D. where the content is divided into sixteen parts, each of which is represented by a tree. |
| Arbre de filosofia d’amor(Tree of the Philosophy of Love) | A theological-philosophical work by Ramón Llull ca. 1298 that covers the subject of love, primarily in regards to the love of god, brotherly love, and their connection to knowledge. |
| Arthurian prose | A collective of stories and medieval romances popular during the 11th century that center on the life and legend of king Arthur. |
| Benjamin Major (The Mystical Ark) | Theological contemplation written by Richard of St Victor. |
| Bible of Floreffe | An illuminated bible created at the Premonstratensian abbey of Floreffe, on the river Sambre near Namur ca. 1155-1160 A.D. |
| Bible of Foigny | An illuminated bible created at the monastery of Sainte Marie in Foigny, a Cistercian house in northeastern France in the diocese of Laon, ca. 1172 A.D. |
| Book of Genesis | The first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament that deals with the creation of the world and early human history. |
| Book of Proverbs | A book that deals with the art of living in the third section of the Hebrew Bible and in the Christian Old Testament. |
| Book of Revelation | The final book of the New Testament and is classified as apocalyptic literature. |
| Books of Kings | A book in the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament that recounts the history kings, including those of the ancient Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. |
| Breviari d’Amor | A compendium of common knowledge created ca. 1288 A.D. that was divided into three branches of thought: natural philosophy, Christian doctrine, and the ethics of courtly love; originally written in Occitan verse by Matfre Ermengaud of Beziers. |
| Categoriae decem | A Latin summary of the Categories of Aristotle ca. 317-388 A.D. |
| Chanson de geste (song of “gesture” or “deeds”) | Old French, medieval epic poems that centered around legendary figures primarily from the 8th and 9th centuries. |
| Compendium historiae in genealogia Christi | A condensed Christian biblical history written by Peter of Poitiers (ca. 1300 A.D.) that traces the genealogy of Jesus from Adam, and was a popular schoolroom text in the 12th and 13th centuries. |
| Corpus juris civilis (Book of Civil Law) | A collection of fundamental laws and legal interpretations compiled under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I ca. 529-565 B.C. and is often referred to as The Code of Justinian. |
| Czech Vyšehrad Codex | An illuminated Romanesque manuscript created ca. 1085-1086 A.D., around the time of the coronation of the first king of Czechoslovakia, Vratislav II (1061–1092 A.D.), and includes prayers for the King’s coronation. |
| De adventu Christi | John of Legnano’s ca. 1375 A.D. treatise that argued that ancient poets, pagan seers such as the Sibyls, and non-Christian astrologers had also predicted the virgin birth of Christ. |
| De amicitia | One of John of Legnano’s theological treatises ca. 1364 A.D. |
| De arbore consanguinitatis | One of John of Legnano’s scientific treatises ca. 1371–1373 A.D. dedicated to XI Gregory. |
| De censura ecclesiastica | One of John of Legnano’s treatises covering universal law ca. 14th century A.D. |
| De cometa | John of Legnano’s scientific treatise ca. 14th century A.D. |
| De continentia | One of John of Legnano’s theological treatises ca. 1364 A.D. |
| De interdicto | One of John of Legnano’s treatises on the subject of canon law ca. 14th century A.D. |
| De pace | John of Legnano’s ca. 1364 A.D. treatise on virtues and vices. |
| De proprietatibus rerum (On the Properties of Things) | An encyclopedia from the 13th-century A.D. by Bartholomeus Anglicus that encompasses matters of theology, astrology, and the natural sciences. |
| De virtutibus moralibus | |
| De virtutibus theologicis | John of Legnano’s treatise on theological virtues ca. fourteenth century A.D. |
| Digestum Novum: Pandectarum luris Civilis Tomus Tertius | A corpus of civil law created at the shop of Hugonem à Porta ca. 1551 A.D. |
| Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers | An encyclopedia edited by Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, published in Paris between 1751 and 1780 A.D. |
| Epic of Gilgamesh | An ancient Sumerian epic poem about the legendary adventures of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, recorded ca. 2100-1200 B.C. |
| Epistola Alexandri ad Aristotelem (Letter of Alexander to Aristotle) | A fictional letter from Alexander the Great to the Greek philosopher Aristotle about his adventures in India, first translated from Greek to Latin around the 4th to 7th centuries. |
| Espejo de verdadera nobleza | A treatise dedicated to Juan II, King of Castile, ca. 1441 A.D. that covered what should define the aristocracy and true chivalric virtues. |
| Etymologiae | An immensely influential etymological encyclopedia compiled by Isidore of Seville ca. 615-630 A.D. |
| Floire et Blancheflor | A popular French romance story ca. 1160 A.D. whose narrative holds Greco-Byzantine origins. |
| Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (General Morphology of Organisms) | A book on evolutionary biology by Ernst Haeckel, published in 1866 A.D. |
| Gesta episcoporum cameracensium(deeds/gestures of the bishops of Cambrai) | A historical account commissioned by Bishop Gerard I of Cambrai ca. 1023-1024 A.D. split into three books that sheds light on the political, economic, and spiritual frontier of the German and French kingdoms. |
| Geste du roi (Deeds of the King) | A cycle of the chanson de geste ca. 11th-12th centuries that primarily featured Charlemagne, an immediate successor, or a king who was a noted champion of Christianity. |
| Gospel of Luke | The third of the four New Testament Gospels that recount the life and death of Jesus Christ, and is one of what are called the Synoptic Gospels. |
| Gospel of Matthew | The first of the four New Testament Gospels that recount the life and death of Jesus Christ, and is one of what are called the Synoptic Gospels. |
| Hebrew Bible | A collection of Hebrew scriptures that constitute a large portion of the Christian Old Testament. |
| Immacallam in dá Thuarad(The Colloquy of the Two Sages) | An example of the early Medieval Irish bardic interchanges preserved in the twelfth century Book of Leinster. |
| Isagoge | An “Introduction” to the logical Categories of Aristotle and standard textbook of logic by Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry ca. 268-270 A.D. |
| Kalevipoeg | A 19th-century epic poem based in Estonian legend by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, first published in 1853 A.D. |
| L’Image du monde (Mirror of the World) | An early vernacular verse encyclopedia about the universe and summary of medieval knowledge by Gauthier de Metz ca. 1246 A.D. |
| La Chronique Universelle(the Universal Chronicle) | History of the world according to secular and essclastical sources created ca. 1440. |
| L’Advision Cristine | An autobiographical and political allegory written by Christine de Pizan ca. 1405 A.D. |
| L’Apparition maistre Jean de Meun (The Apparition of Jean de Meun) | A political narrative in the form of a dream written by Honorat Bovet ca. 1398 A.D. |
| L’Arbre des Batailles (The Tree of Battles) | A treatise on chivalry and the laws of war written ca. 1387-9 A.D. by Honorat Bovet, dedicated to King Charles VI. |
| L’Image du monde (Mirror of the World) | A medieval encyclopedic treatise about the universe and creation. |
| Landnámabók (Book of Settlements) | A medieval Icelandic written work describing the settlement of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th centuries A.D., most likely compiled in the early 12th century. |
| Le Songe du Verger | A treatise on the relationship between spiritual and temporal powers by Phillipe de Maiziéres, presented to King Charles V in 1378 A.D. |
| Legenda aurea (The Golden Legend) | A collection of hagiographies by Jacobus de Voragine compiled ca. 1260 A.D. |
| Liber floridus (Book of flowers) | A medieval encyclopedia that was compiled between 1090 and 1120 A.D. by Lambert of Saint-Omer. |
| Liber generationis | The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ found in Matthew 1:1-16. |
| Livre des faits d’armes et de chevalerie | A military treatise written by Christine de Pizan in 1410 A.D. |
| Lord of the Rings | An epic high-fantasy series by English author and scholar J.R.R. Tolkien, first published in 1954 A.D. |
| Missal | A book containing instructions and texts necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the liturgical year. |
| On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection | A groundbreaking book on evolutionary biology by Charles Robert Darwin in 1859 A.D. |
| Opuscula sacra (Sacred Works) | A collection of short theological treatises by the early Medieval scholar Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius ca. 6th century A.D. |
| Parc Bible | An illuminated three-volume Bible made ca. 1148 A.D. for the Premonstratensian Abbey Sainte Marie de Parc, near Leuven (in modern-day Belgium). |
| Peri Hermeneias | A philosophical text from Aristotle’s Organon that deals with the relationship between language and logic. |
| Poems and Romances (the Talbot Shrewsbury book) | An illuminated collection ca. 1445 A.D. of fifteen texts in French that incorporate chansons de geste, chivalric romances, and treatises on warfare and chivalry. |
| Poetic Edda | A collection of Old Norse poems primarily preserved during the Middle Ages in the Icelandic manuscript Codex Regius. |
| Psalter | A volume that contains the Book of Psalms, a book of the Old Testament composed of sacred songs and poems. |
| Psautier de Saint Louis et de Blanche de Castile | An illuminated psalter ca. 13th century A.D. for the use of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris. |
| Roman de la rose | An allegorical poem about courtly love begun by Guillaume de Lorris ca. 1225 A.D. and completed by Jean de Meun ca. 1276 A.D. |
| Roman de Renart | A set of medieval allegorical Dutch, English, French and German animal fables that dates back to the 12th century A.D. |
| Royal Frankish Annals | An account of the years 741 to 829 A.D. and the state of the monarchy in the Kingdom of the Franks. |
| Shahnama (Book of Kings) | An immense epic completed by the Persian poet Abu’l Qasim Firdausi ca. 1010 A.D. |
| Somnium | One of John of Legnano’s treatises on civil and canon law in defense of the papal monarchy ca. 1372 A.D. |
| Speculum Historiale (Mirror of History) | A medieval encyclopedia of world history from the creation of the world until ca. 1240, based on the work of Dominican scholar Vincent de Beauvais. |
| Speculum virginum (Mirror of Virgins) | A didactic treatise on female monastic life created ca. 1140 A.D. |
| Statutes of the Order of the Garter | A compilation of laws for The Order of the Garter, which was founded in 1348 and was the most senior Order of Knighthood in the British Honors system. |
| Tabula remissoria | One of John of Legnano’s treatises on the subject of canon law ca. 14th century A.D. |
| The Advancement of Learning | Francis Bacon’s first philosophical treatise written in 1605. |
| The Baron in the Trees | An 1957 novel by Italo Calvino about an Italian nobleman who rebels by climbing into the trees, where he lives for the remainder of his life. |
| The Dream of the Rood | An anonymous Old English poem ca. 8th century A.D. that details the Passion of Christ from the perspective of the cross. |
| The Giving Tree | The 1964 American children’s picture book written and illustrated by Shel Silverstein. |
| The Hero of Esthonia and Other Studies in the Romantic Literature of That Country | An 1895 English prose translation of The Kalevipoeg, the national epic of Estonia, and compendium of Estonian literature by W. F. Kirby. |
| The Torah | A scroll composed of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, traditionally thought to have been composed by Moses. |
| The Vercelli Book | One of the four major anthologies of Old English prose and verse ca. 10th century A.D. that contains the Anglo-Saxon poem “Dream of the Rood”. |
| Theodosian Code | A collection of imperial laws composed ca. 429-438 A.D. under the authority of Roman Emperor Theodosius II. |
| Today, Another Universe | Poem by Jane Hirshfield ca. 2020 A.D. |
| Tractatus (Summulae Logicales) | A textbook on Aristotelian logic written by Peter of Spain ca. 1230s that was commonly used in medieval universities. |
| Tractatus de Bello, de Represaliis, et de Duello | John of Legnano’s ca. 1360 A.D. legal treatise dedicated to Cardinal Albornoz on the politics and economics of war, often cited as an early source of international law. |
| Vita Bonifatii | Biographic work on the “Life of Boniface” written by Willibald of Mainz ca. 8th century A.D. |
| Vulgate cycle (cycle du Lancelot Graal) | A group of Arthurian romances in French prose ca. 1210–1230 A.D. |
Bibliography
L’Arbre des Batailles (digital facsimiles)
BE 1202. Thüringer Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Jena, Jena. https://collections.thulb.uni-jena.de/receive/HisBest_cbu_00008865
Beinecke MS 230. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New Haven. https://collections.library.yale.edu/catalog/2005358
Beinecke MS 605. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New Haven. https://collections.library.yale.edu/catalog/2013559
BHSL.HS.0792. Ghent University Library, Ghent. https://lib.ugent.be/catalog/rug01%3A000990574/items/910000086607
BSB-Hss Cod.gall. 12. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, München. https://www.digitalesammlungen.de/en/details/bsb00065859
Espagnol 206. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc34815s
Français 1260. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc437890
Français 1261. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43800b
Français 1262. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc438049
Français 1263. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43805j/ca19858401
Français 1264. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43805j/ca19858404
Français 1265. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43806s
Français 1266. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc438071
Français 1267. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43810j
Français 1268. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc438138
Français 1270. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43823g
Français 1271. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43824q
Français 1272. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43825z
Français 1273. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc438266
Français 1274. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43827f
Français 1275. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc43834x
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H 363. Archives départementales de Saône-et-Loire, Mâcon. https://portail.biblissima.fr/fr/ark:/43093/mdata62d407d8765242145fbeb187f22272e152c2a82
Hdschr. 205. Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Berlin. https://stabikat.de/DB=1/SET=3/TTL=1/SHW?FRST=7
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MS f Med.92. Boston Public Library, Boston. https://ark.digitalcommonwealth.org/ark:/50959/nc581732x
MS M.907, fol. 002v. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York. http://corsair.themorgan.org/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=341524
MS Royal 20 C VIII. The British Library, London. http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/ILLUMIN.ASP?Size=mid&IllID=40798
MS Royal 15 E VI. The British Library, London. http://searcharchives.bl.uk/IAMS_VU2:LSCOP_BL:IAMS040-002107094
MS Typ 61. Houghton Library, Cambridge. https://id.lib.harvard.edu/digital_collections/990095328440203941
Ms. 165. Bibliothèque municipale, Soissons. https://portail.biblissima.fr/fr/ark:/43093/mdata4b7611b808e196cd23c62ec23006941d07507494
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Ms. Codex 622. UPenn, Philadelphia. http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/d/medren/2486639
Mscr.Dresd.Oc.58. Sächsische Landesbibliothek, Dresde. https://digital.slubdresden.de/werkansicht/dlf/54311/1
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RES-R-1194. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k87109065/f269.planchecontact
Rés. R. 272. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b7300069m
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Robbins MS 091. University of California, Berkeley. http://ds.lib.berkeley.edu/RobbinsMS091_11
s.11.2421. Médiathèque du Grand Troyes, Troyes. https://portail.mediatheque.grandtroyes.fr/iguana/www.main.cls?surl=search#RecordId=7.3129
VELINS-521. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1057724j
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XV.B114. ULiège Library, Belgium. http://hdl.handle.net/2268.1/1632
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“1 Kings 16:32-34”, 21st Century King James Version. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%2016:32-34&version=KJ21
“Coptic Textile Fragment (89.18.95)”, The Met, New York. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/443300
“Cylinder seal 89308”, The British Museum, London. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1853-0625-1
“Daniel 4.1-24”, King James Bible. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Daniel+4.1-24&version=KJV
“Door lintel with lion-griffins and vase with lotus leaf”, The Met, New York. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/322626
« Figurine A0 12446 », Louvre, Paris. https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010119504
“Furniture plaque carved in high relief with two Egyptianizing figures flanking a volute tree”, The Met, New York. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/325564
“Genesis 3”, King James Bible. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%203&version=AKJV
“Genesis 3:20”, King James Bible. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+3%3A20&version=AKJV
“Handle of a flywhisk or fan”, The Met, New York. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324324
“Hebrews 13:4”, King James Version. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hebrews+13%3A4&version=KJV
“Isaiah 11:1”, Biblia Sacra Vulgata. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+11:1&version=vulgate
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“Matthew 7:18-19”, King James Version. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%207&version=KJV
“Prüfening”, Haus der Bayerischen Geschichte, Regensburg. http://www.hdbg.eu/kloster/index.php/detail?id=KS0320
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(2007), « Trésors carolingiens », Bibliothèque nationale de France. http://expositions.bnf.fr/carolingiens/index.htm
(2008), “Fjölsvinnsmál”, Völuspá.org. http://www.voluspa.org/fjolsvinnsmal16-20.htm
(2008), “Grímnismál”, Völuspá.org. http://www.voluspa.org/grimnismal26-30.htm
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